EstablishedAttested by reliable, concordant sources; no reasonable doubt.
This is established. Authentic documents, such as the 1233 caricature on an Exchequer roll, show Jews of Norwich surrounded by demons. These images document a Christian prejudice — not a Jewish practice.
Assessment
Evidence for
- +Exchequer caricature, 1233 (The National Archives, E 401/1565).
- +Overview studies, including Trachtenberg, The Devil and the Jews (1943).
Limits of the sources
- !These images reflect the gaze of their Christian makers, not the life of Jewish communities.
Reasoning
Two claims must be distinguished: 'there were images associating Jews with the devil' (established, the documents exist) and 'Jews had satanic practices' (contradicted by the evidence).
- Confidence
- High
- Last reviewed
- 9 November 2026
Assessment history (1)
9 November 2026Established
First published assessment (dossier version 1).
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